1.Penyata pendapatan membantu pengguna-pengguna penyata kewangan untuk;

• menilai prestasi syarikat pada masa lepas,
• memberikan asas untuk meramal prestasi masa depan, dan
• (3) membantu menilai risiko atau ketidakpastian memenuhi alirtunai masa depan.

2.Limitasi penyata pendapatan ialah;

• item-item yang tidak boleh diukur tidak dilaporkan dalam penyata pendapatan,
• angka-angka pendapatan akan terjejas dengan penggunaan kaedah perakaunan yang berbeza, dan
• pengukuran pendapatan melibatkan judgment.

Elemen-elemen dalam Penyata Pendapatan

3.Elemen utama dalam pendapatan bersih ialah hasil, belanja, untung, dan rugi. Perbezaan antara hasil dan untung serta perbezaan antara belanja dan kerugian bergantung kepada aktiviti-aktiviti perniagaan syarikat. Apabila alir masuk atau pertambahan aset hasil daripada aktiviti perniagaan yang dijalankan akan menjanakan pendapatan. Sebaliknya, sekiranya alir keluar atau penggunaan aset hasil dari operasi aktiviti perniagaan, maka belanja akan dilibatkan. Alir masuk dan alir keluar aktiviti bukan operasi perniagaan akan menjanakan laba (gain) dan rugi.



Single-Step vs. Multiple-Step

4.Penyata pendapatan mungkin akan dibentangkan dalam format single-step atau multiple-step.

Penyata pendapatan single-step memperolehi pendapatan bersih dengan jumlah kos dan belanja dari jumlah hasil dalam satu 'langkah tunggal'. Cukai pendapatan biasanya ditunjukkan sebagai item yang terasing dari belanja-belanja (biasa akhir sekali) untuk menunjukkan perhubungannya dengan pendapatan sebelum cukai.

The multiple-step format separates results achieved by regular operations of the entity from those obtained by nonoperating activities. Expenses are also classified by function such as cost of sales, selling, and administrative. The multiple-step format provides more information to financial statement users than does the single-step format; however, both are found in actual practice.

5.An income statement is composed of various sections that relate to different aspects of the earning process. The seven sections identified in the chapter, in the general order of their appearance in the income statement, are:

(1)Operating Section. Revenues and expenses from the entity’s principal operations.

• Sales or revenue section.
• Cost of goods sold section.
• Selling expenses.
• Administrative or general expenses.

(2)Nonoperating Section. Revenues and expenses resulting from secondary or auxiliary activities of the company.

• Other revenues and gains.
• Other expenses and losses.

(3)Income Tax. All taxes levied on income from continuing operations.

(4)Discontinued Operations. Material gains and losses resulting from disposal of a segment of the business.

(5)Extraordinary Items. Unusual and infrequent material gains and losses.

(6)Earnings Per Share.

The informative content of the income statement may be further enhanced by adding additional subsections to the above major sections.


All-Inclusive Concept vs. Current Operating Performance Concept

6.For the most part, accountants tend to agree on the composition of items included on the income statement. However, certain unusual items have stirred controversy in regard to the effect they should have on the presentation of net income. Some accountants favor an all-inclusive concept that reports the unusual items directly in the income statement. Those who support the current operating performance concept to income measurement believe that the unusual items should be closed directly to retained earnings (not included in computing net income). APB Opinion No. 9 adopted a modified all-inclusive concept and requires application of this approach in practice.


Reporting Irregular Items

7.In an attempt to provide financial statement users with the ability to better determine the long-range earning power of an enterprise, certain professional pronouncements require that the following irregular items be highlighted in the financial statements.

A.Discontinued operations.
B.Extraordinary items.
C.Unusual gains and losses.
D.Changes in estimates.
E.Corrections of errors.


Discontinued Operations

8.A discontinued operation occurs when

• the results of operations and cash flows of a component of a company have been (or will be) eliminated from the ongoing operations, and
• there is no significant continuing involvement in that component after the disposal transaction.

When an entity decides to dispose of a component of its business, certain classification and disclosure requirements must be met. A separate income statement category for gain or loss from disposal of a component of a business must be provided. In addition, the results of operations of a component that has been or will be disposed of are also reported separately from continuing operations.


Extraordinary Items

9.Extraordinary items are defined as material items that are unusual in nature and occur infrequently. Both characteristics must exist for an item to be classified as an extraordinary item on the income statement. Only rarely does an event or transaction clearly meet both criteria and thus give rise to an extraordinary gain or loss. If an event or transaction meets both tests, it is shown net of taxes in a separate section of the income statement usually just above net income.


Unusual Gains and Losses

10.Material gains and losses that are either unusual or occur infrequently, but not both, are excluded from the extraordinary item classification. These items are presented with the normal, recurring revenues, costs, and expenses. If material, these items are disclosed separately; if immaterial, they may be combined with other items in the income statement.


Changes in Accounting Principles

11.A change in accounting principle results when an entity adopts a new accounting principle that is different from the one previously used. A company recognizes a change in accounting principle by making a retrospective adjustment to the financial statements. Such an adjustment recasts the prior years’ statements on a basis consistent with the newly adopted principle. The company records the cumulative effect of the change for prior periods as an adjustment to beginning retained earnings of the earliest year presented.


Changes in Estimates

12.Accountants make extensive use of estimates in preparing financial statements. Adjustments that grow out of the use of estimates in accounting are used in the determination of income for the current period and future periods and are not charged or credited directly to Retained Earnings. It should be noted that changes in estimates are not considered errors (prior period adjustments) or extraordinary items.


Corrections of Errors

13.Companies must correct errors by making proper entries in the accounts and reporting corrections in the financial statements. Corrections of errors are treated as prior period adjustments, similar to changes in accounting principles. Companies record an error in the year in which it is discovered. They report the effect of the error as an adjustment to the beginning balance of retained earnings. If a company prepares comparative financial statements, it should restate the prior statements for the effects of the error.


Intraperiod Tax Allocation

14.Intraperiod tax allocation is the process of relating the income tax effect of an unusual item to that item when it appears on the income statement. Income tax expense related to continuing operations is shown on the income statement at its appropriately computed amount. All other items included in the determination of net income should be shown net of their related tax effect. The tax amount may be disclosed in the income statement or in a footnote.


Earnings per Share

15.In general, earnings per share represents the ratio of net income minus preferred dividends (income available to common shareholders) divided by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding. It is considered by many financial statement users to be the most significant statistic presented in the financial statements, and must be disclosed on the face of the income statement. Per share amounts for gain or loss on discontinued operations and gain or loss on extraordinary items must be disclosed on the face of the income statement or in the notes to the financial statements.


Retained Earnings

16.The statement of retained earnings serves to reconcile the balance of the retained earnings account from the beginning to the end of the year. The important information communicated by the statement of retained earnings includes: (a) prior period adjustments (income or loss related to corrections of errors in the financial statements of
a prior period net of tax), (b) changes in accounting principle, (c) the relationship of dividend distributions to net income for the period, and (d) any transfers to and from retained earnings.


Comprehensive Income

17.Items that bypass the income statement are included under the concept of comprehensive income. Comprehensive income includes all changes in equity during
a period except those resulting from investments by owners and distributions to owners. Recently the FASB evaluated approaches to providing more information about other comprehensive income items. It decided that the components of other comprehensive income must be displayed in one of three ways: (1) a second separate income statement; (2) a combined income statement of comprehensive income, or (3) as part of the statement of stockholders’ equity.

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Elemen-elemen asas dalam proses perakaunan.



Prosidur dan Proses Merekod Catatan Bergu

1. Proses perakaunan boleh diterangkan sebagai satu set prosidur yang digunakan dalam mengenalpasti, merekod, mengkelas, dan mentafsir maklumat yang berkait dengan transaksi dan lain-lain peristiwa bagi sesuatu entiti perniagaan. Untuk memahami proses perakaunan, seseorang itu mesti mengetahui terminologi asas yang digunakan dalam proses perakaunan.

Terminologi asas tersebut adalah: peristiwa (event), transaksi, akaun benar, akaun nominal, lejer, jurnal, posting, imbang duga, pelarasan catatan, penyata kewangan, dan catatan penutup.Terma-terma ini merujuk kepada pelbagai aktiviti yang membentuk kitaran perakaunan.

2.Catatan bergu perakaunan merujuk kepada proses yang digunakan dalam transaksi. Terma debit dan kredit digunakan dalam proses perakaunan untuk menunjukkan kesan transaksi terhadap baki akaun-akaun.

Bahagian debit bagi setiap akaun ialah sebelah kiri; manakala bahagian kanan pula ialah bahagian kredit. Pertambahan aset dan belanja akan dicatat di bahagian debit dan pengurangannya dicatat pada bahagian kredit. Pertambahan liabiliti, ekuiti pemilik, dan hasil akan dicatat di bahagian kredit, penyusutannya akan dicatat di bahagian debit.


The Accounting Cycle

3. In a double-entry system, for every debit there must be a credit and vice-versa. This leads us, then, to the basic equation in accounting: Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders’ Equity.

4. The first step in the accounting cycle is analysis of transactions and selected other events. The purpose of this analysis is to determine which events represent transactions that should be recorded.

5. Events can be classified as external or internal. External events are those between the enterprise and its environment, whereas internal events relate to transactions totally within the enterprise.

Journalizing

6.  Transactions are initially recorded in a journal, sometimes referred to as the book of original entry. A general journal is merely a chronological listing of transactions expressed in terms of debits and credits to particular accounts. No distinction is made in
a general journal concerning the type of transaction involved. In addition to a general journal, specialized journals are used to accumulate transactions possessing common characteristics.


Posting

7. The next step in the accounting cycle involves transferring amounts entered in the journal to the general ledger. The ledger is a book that usually contains a separate page for each account. Transferring amounts from a journal to the ledger is called posting. Transactions recorded in a general journal must be posted individually, whereas entries made in specialized journals are generally posted by columnar total.

Trial Balance

8. The next step in the accounting cycle is the preparation of a trial balance. A trial balance is a list of all open accounts in the general ledger and their balances. An entity may prepare a trial balance at any time in the accounting cycle. A trial balance prepared after posting has been completed serves to check the mechanical accuracy of the posting process and provides a listing of accounts to be used in preparing financial statements.

Adjusting Entries

9. Preparation of adjusting journal entries is the next step in the accounting cycle. Adjusting entries are entries made at the end of accounting period to bring all accounts up to date on an accrual accounting basis so that correct financial statements can be prepared. Adjusting entries are necessary to achieve a proper matching of revenues and expenses in the determination of net income for the current period and to achieve an accurate statement of the assets and equities existing at the end of the period. One common characteristic of adjusting entries is that they affect at least one real account (asset, liability, or equity account) and one nominal account (revenue or expense account). Adjusting entries can be classified as: prepaid expenses, unearned revenues, accrued revenues, and accrued expenses.

10. Prepaid expenses and unearned revenues refer to situations where cash has been paid or received but the corresponding expense or revenue will not be recognized until a future period. Accrued revenues and accrued expenses are revenues and expenses recognized in the current period for which the corresponding payment or receipt of cash is to occur in a future period. Estimated items are expenses such as bad debts and depreciation whose amounts are a function of unknown future events or developments.

Adjusted Trial Balance

11. After adjusting entries are recorded and posted, an adjusted trial balance is prepared.

Financial Statements

12. From the adjusted trial balance a company can directly prepare its financial statements.


Closing-Basic Process

13. After financial statements have been prepared, nominal (revenues and expenses) accounts should be reduced to zero in preparation for recording the transactions of the next period. This closing process requires recording and posting of closing entries. All nominal accounts are reduced to zero by closing them through the Income Summary account. The net balance in the Income Summary account is equal to net income or net loss for the period. The net income or net loss for the period is transferred to owners’ equity by closing the Income Summary account to Retained Earnings.

Post-Closing Trial Balance

14. A third trial balance may be prepared after the closing entries are recorded and posted. This post-closing trial balance shows that equal debits and credits have been posted properly to the Income Summary account.

Closing Inventory and Related Accounts

15. When inventory records are maintained on other than a perpetual basis, an adjustment is usually needed to reflect the difference between the beginning and ending inventory. This year-end inventory adjustment eliminates all nominal accounts related to the purchase of inventory by transferring them to Cost of Goods Sold. The adjustment also eliminates the beginning inventory amount and establishes the amount of ending inventory to be included on the balance sheet. A typical inventory adjusting entry would include debits and credits to the following accounts:

	Dr.	Cr.
Inventory (ending)	XX,XXX
Purchase Discounts	X,XXX
Purchase Returns and Allowances	X,XXX
Cost of Goods Sold	XXX,XXX
Inventory (beginning)		XX,XXX
Purchases		XXX,XXX
Transportation-In		X,XXX

16. In summary, the steps in the accounting cycle performed every fiscal period are as follows:

a. Enter the transactions of the period in appropriate journals.
b. Post from the journals to the ledger (or ledgers).
c. Prepare an unadjusted trial balance.
d. Prepare adjusting journal entries and post them to the ledger(s).
e. Prepare a trial balance after adjusting (adjusted balance).
f. Prepare the financial statements from the adjusted trial balance.
g. Prepare closing journal entries and post them to the ledger(s).
h. Prepare a trial balance after closing (post-closing trial balance).
i. Prepare reversing entries (optional) and post them to the ledger(s).


Cash Versus Accrual Basis Accounting


17. Cash Basis Accounting Versus Accrual Basis Accounting, is presented in the Appendix A of Chapter 3 for the purpose of demonstrating the difference between cash basis and accrual basis accounting. Under the strict cash basis of accounting, revenue is recognized only when cash is received, and expenses are recorded only when cash is paid. The accrual basis of accounting recognizes revenue when it is earned and expenses when incurred without regard to the time of receipt or payment of cash.


Reversing Entries

18. Reversing entries is the final step in the accounting cycle. A reversing entry is made at the beginning of the next accounting period and is the exact opposite of the adjusting entry made in the previous period. The recording of reversing entries is an optional step in the accounting cycle that may be performed at the beginning of the next accounting period. The entries subject to reversal are the adjusting entries for accrued revenues and accrued expenses recorded at the close of the previous accounting period.


Work Sheet

19. Work sheet serves as an aid to the accountant in adjusting the account balances and preparing the financial statements. The work sheet provides an orderly format for the accumulation of information necessary for preparation of financial statements. Use of a work sheet does not replace any financial statements, nor does it alter any of the steps in the accounting cycle.

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Although accounting theory is based upon certain assumptions and the application of basic principles, there are some exceptions to these assumptions. These exceptions, often called constraints, sometimes justify departures from basic accounting theory. The constraints presented in Chapter 2 are the following:

1. Cost-Benefit Relationship. 
This constraint relates to the notion that the benefits to be derived from providing certain accounting information should exceed the costs of providing that information. The difficulty in cost-benefit analysis is that the costs and especially the benefits are not always evident or measurable.

2. Materiality. 
In the application of basic accounting theory, an amount may be considered less important because of its size in comparison with revenues and expenses, assets and liabilities, or net income. Deciding when an amount is material in relation to other amounts is a matter of judgment and professional expertise. The accounting for immaterial items need not follow GAAP.

3. Industry Practices. 
Basic accounting theory may not apply with equal relevance to every industry that accounting must serve. The fair presentation of financial position
and results of operations for a particular industry may require a departure from basic accounting theory because of the peculiar nature of an event or practice common only to that industry.

4. Conservatism. 
When in doubt, an accountant should choose a solution that will be least likely to overstate assets and income. The conservatism constraint should be applied only when doubt exists. An intentional understatement of assets or income is not acceptable accounting.

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Certain basic principles are followed by accountants in recording the transactions of a business entity. These principles relate basically to how assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses are to be identified, measured, and reported. The following is a brief review of the basic principles considered in Chapter 2 of the text:

1. Historical Cost Principle. 

Acquisition cost is considered a reliable basis upon which to account for assets and liabilities of a business enterprise. Cost has been found to be a more stable and consistent benchmark than other suggested valuation methods. Recently, the FASB appears to support greater use of fair value measurements in the financial statements.

2. Revenue Recognition Principle. 

Revenue is recognized (1) when realized or relizable and (2) when earned. Recognition at the time of sale provides a uniform and reasonable test. Certain variations in the revenue recognition principle include: certain long-term construction contracts, end-of-production recogni¬tion, and recognition upon receipt of cash.

3. Matching Principle. 

Accountants attempt to match expenses incurred while earning revenues with the related revenues. Use of accrual accounting procedures assists the accountant in allocating revenues and expenses properly among the fiscal periods that compose the life of a business enterprise.

4. Full Disclosure Principle. 

In the preparation of financial statements, the accountant should include sufficient information to permit the knowledgeable reader to make an informed judgment about the financial condition of the enterprise in question.

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In the practice of financial accounting, certain basic assumptions are important to an understanding of the manner in which data are presented. The following four basic assumptions underlie the financial accounting structure:

1. Economic Entity Assumption. 
The economic activities of an entity can be accumulated and reported in a manner that assumes the entity is separate and distinct from its owners or other business units.

2. Going Concern Assumption. 
In the absence of contrary information, a business entity is assumed to have a long life. The current relevance of the historical cost principle is dependent on the going-concern assumption.

3. Monetary Unit Assumption. 
Money is the common denominator of economic activity and provides an appropriate basis for accounting measurement and analysis. The monetary unit is assumed to remain relatively stable over the years in terms of purchasing power. In essence, this assumption disregards any inflation or deflation in the economy in which the entity operates.

4. Periodicity Assumption. 
The life of an economic entity can be divided into artificial time periods for the purpose of providing periodic reports on the economic activities of the entity.

As you progress through the remaining chapters in the text, the reasoning behind these assumptions should become more apparent.

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An important aspect of developing an accounting theoretical structure is the body of basic elements or definitions. Ten basic elements that are most directly related to measuring the performance and financial status of an enterprise are formally defined in SFAC No. 6. These elements, as defined below, are further discussed and interpreted throughout the text.

1.Assets. 
Probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactions or events.

2.Liabilities. 
Probable future sacrifices of economic benefits that arise from present obligations of a particular entity to transfer assets or provide services to other entities in the future as a result of past transactions or events.

3.Equity. 
Residual interest in the assets of an entity that remains after deducting its liabilities. In a business enterprise, the equity is the ownership interest.

4.Investments by Owners. 
Increases in net assets of a particular enterprise resulting from transfers to it from other entities of something of value to obtain or increase ownership interests (or equity) in it. Assets are most commonly received as investments by owners, but that which is received may include services or satisfaction or conversion of liabilities of the enterprise.


5.Distributions to Owners. 
Decreases in net assets of a particular enterprise that result from transferring assets, rendering services, or incurring liabilities by the enterprise to owners. Distributions to owners decrease ownership interests (or equity) in an enterprise.

6.Comprehensive Income. 
Change in equity (net assets) of an entity during a period from transactions and other events and circumstances from nonowner sources. It includes all changes in equity during a period, except those resulting from investments by owners and distributions to owners.

7.Revenues. 
Inflows or other enhancements of assets of an entity or settlement of its liabilities (or a combination of both) during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute the entity’s ongoing major or central operations.

8.Expenses. 
Outflows or other using up of assets or incurrences of liabilities (or a combination of both) during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or carrying out other activities that constitute the entity’s ongoing major or central operations.

9.Gains. 
Increases in equity (net assets) from peripheral or incidental transactions of an entity and from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the entity during a period except those that result from revenues or investments by owners.

10.Losses. 
Decrease in equity (net assets) from peripheral or incidental transactions of an entity from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the entity during a period except those that result from expenses or distributions to owners.

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Primary Qualities
The primary qualities that make accounting information useful for decision making are relevance and reliability.

1. Relevan. 
Sesuatu maklumat perakaunan itu relevan sekiranya ia mempengaruhi arah sesuatu pembuatan keputusan

2. Realibiliti. 
Maklumat perakaunan dikatakan realiber apabila ia boleh disahkan oleh pihak ketiga, menggambarkan peristiwa yang benar-benar wujud atau berlaku, dan bebas dari ralat (error) serta berkecuali


Secondary Qualities

The secondary qualities identified are comparability and consistency.

1. Comparability. 
Accounting information that has been measured and reported in a similar manner for different enterprises is considered comparable.

2. Consistency. 
Accounting information is consistent when an entity applies the same accounting treatment to similar events from period to period.

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1. A conceptual framework in accounting is important because it can lead to consistent standards and it prescribes the nature, function, and limits of financial accounting and financial statements. The benefits its development will generate can be characterized as follows: (a) it should be easier to promulgate a coherent set of standards and rules; and (b) practical problems should be more quickly solved.

2. The FASB recognized the need for a conceptual framework upon which a con-sistent set of financial accounting standards could be based. The FASB has issued six Statements of Financial Accounting Concepts (SFAC) that relate to financial reporting. They are listed and described briefly below:

SFAC No. 1. “Objectives of Financial Reporting by Business Enterprises” presents the goals and purposes of accounting.

SFAC No. 2. “Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information” examines the characteristics that make accounting information useful.

SFAC No. 3. “Elements of Financial Statements of Business Enterprises” defines the broad clas¬sifications of items found in financial statements.

SFAC No. 5. “Recognition and Measurement in Financial Statements of Business Enterprises” gives guidance on what information should be formally incorporated into financial statements and when.

SFAC No. 6. “Elements of Financial Statements” replaces SFAC No. 3 and expands its scope to include not-for-profit organizations.

SFAC No. 7. “Using Cash Flow Information and Present Value in Accounting Measurements,” provides a framework for using expected future cash flows and present values as a basis for measurement.


Basic Objectives

SFAC No. 1 describes the objectives of financial reporting as the presentation of information that is useful (a) in making investment and credit decisions, (b) in assessing cash flow prospects, and (c) in learning about economic resources, claims to those resources, and changes in them. SFAC No. 2 identifies the primary and secondary qualitative characteristics of accounting information that distinguish better (more useful) information from inferior (less useful) information for decision-making purposes.

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1.Financial accounting is the process that culminates in the preparation of financial reports on the enterprise for use by both internal and external parties.

2.Financial statements are the principal means through which a company communicates its financial information to those outside it. The financial statements most frequently provided are (1) the balance sheet, (2) the income statement, (3) the statement of cash flows, and (4) the statement of owners’ or stockholders’ equity. Other means of financial reporting include the president’s letter or supplementary schedules in the corporate annual report, prospectuses, and reports filed with government agencies.


3.Accounting is important for markets, free enterprise, and competition because it assists in providing information that leads to capital allocation. The better the information, the more effective the process of capital allocation and then the healthier the economy.

4.The challenges facing financial accounting are the following:
a.Non-financial measurements such as customer satisfaction indexes, backlog information, and reject rates on goods purchased.
b.Forward-looking information.
c.Soft assets.
d.Timeliness.

5.The objectives of financial accounting are to provide information that:
a.is useful to present and potential investors and creditors and other users in making rational investment, credit, and similar decisions;
b.helps present and potential investors, creditors, and other users assess the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of prospective cash receipts from dividends or interest and the proceeds from the sale, redemption, or maturity of securities or loans; and
c.clearly portrays the economic resources of an enterprise, the claims to those resources, and the effects of transactions, events, and circumstances that change its resources and claims to those resources.

6.The accounting profession has developed a common set of standards and procedures known as generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). These principles serve as a general guide to the accounting practitioner in accumulating and reporting the financial information of a business enterprise.

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Silibus

Sila muat turun silibus IA I di sini


Kuliah

Ahad : 10.30 pagi - 12.30 t/hari
Tempat: BK8

Isnin : 11.30 pagi - 01.30 t/h
Tempat: BK2

PERHATIAN*

Kuliah pertama bermula pada 18 Januari 2009.

Kehadiran adalah wajib, jika ada sebarang masalah hendaklah memaklumkan kepada saya melalui sms atau email, dan kemudiannya mesti disusuli dengan dokumen bertulis (surat atau sijil sakit atau sebagainya).

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Perakaunan merupakan satu seni merekod, mengkelas, meringkas secara signifikan, urusniaga dan peristiwa dalam bentuk wang dan mentafsirkan segala keputusan darinya.

Asal perkataan perakaunan ialah 'akaun' yang bermaksud usaha memberikan penjelasan (justifikasi) mengenai sesuatu oleh satu pihak kepada pihak yang lain. Sebagai contoh sesebuah syarikat dikatakan mengakaunkan modalnya bermaksud ia memberikan penjelasan tentang bagaimana pihak pengurusan menggunakan modal yang telah diserahkan oleh pemegangag ekuiti.


Proses mengakaunkan sentiasa melibatkan dua pihak. Contohnya modal, satu pihak akan memberikan sumber (pelabur) pada satu tarikh (awal kala perakaunan) dan satu pihak yang kedua ialah pihak yang menerima sumber (pengurusan). Pada akhir tempoh, pihak penerima sumber perlu memberikan penjelasan bagaimana sumber tersebut digunakan dan apakah natijah dari penggunaan tersebut.


Penyerahan sumber oleh A Pemberian penjelasan oleh B
Penggunaan sumber oleh B
pada titik x -------------------------------------------------------- titik y

Penerimaan sumber oleh B Penerimaan penjelasan oleh A

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